The scaffolds tend to stimulate the cells, and the tissue is eventually reconstructed by the messages from the scaffold. After the transfer of new tissue scaffolds to soft tissues in-vivo, do not necessarily need to be destroyed, whereas, for hard tissues, the scaffold materials do persist forever or for a certain duration. After growing on the porous scaffold, cells/organs are transported from the laboratory to the real organism. Many scaffold designs opt for high porosity materials with a porosity of above 90% because they allow for appropriate nutrient absorption during tissue culturing and offer enough surface area for interactions between cells and biomaterials. Smaller pores enable tissue ingrowth, while larger pores (porous scaffolds) encourage cell seeding and migration. Most scaffolds used in tissue engineering are made of porous materials which act or provide extracellular matrix or growth factors for cell growth and they do have broader mechanical properties and are metabolically active. These scaffolds can be altered to be formed at the nanoscale or microscale, which is expected to favor or regulate biological factors/growth factor releases. Scaffolds are expected to meet certain parameters, including excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, a porous structure to facilitate cellular growth to help in tissue regeneration, and the controlled stimulation of the anticipated biological response to produce the desired product, which can be mostly tissue or organs ( Figure 1). A scaffold is an artificial framework used for the formation of three–dimensional (3D) tissues, cell attachment and migration, and cell transport and retention, as well as the diffusion of essential nutrients and released products. In the multidisciplinary field of tissue regeneration, a lot of buzz is being generated, as it has proven to be a breakthrough therapeutic technique for solving the drawbacks of current artificial organs, as well as restoring severely damaged tissues or organs. Tissue engineering is an in-vitro process for creating bioengineered tissues and an in-vivo process when implanting into a living system (mostly animals). Its triad relies on selecting the cells, the appropriate 3D scaffolds (mostly biopolymers based), and the appropriate chemical mediators required for tissue formation/regeneration ( Figure 1). Tissue engineering is one the powerful strategies for treating people who have lost or have failed organs or tissues. Nearly tens of thousands of individuals die each year as a result of the loss of organs or tissues or their dysfunction. This review also emphasizes the importance of using natural polymers rather than synthetic ones for developing scaffolds, as natural polymers have unique properties, like high biocompatibility, biodegradability, accessibility, stability, absence of toxicity, and low cost. Biopolymer-based nanocomposite production and its application and limitations are also discussed in this review. This review is about the fabrication methods and applications of scaffolds made using various biological macromolecules, including polysaccharides like chitosan, agarose, cellulose, and dextran and proteins like soy proteins, zein proteins, etc. In recent years, scaffolds made up of proteins, polysaccharides, or glycoproteins have been highly used due to their tensile strength, biodegradability, and flexibility. In addition to this, these macromolecules are found to have higher biocompatibility and no/lesser toxicity when compared to synthetic polymers. Biological macromolecules like polysaccharides/proteins/glycoproteins have been widely used in the field of tissue engineering due to their ability to mimic the extracellular matrix of tissue.
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